Few psychological phenomena have captivated public attention as thoroughly as Stockholm syndrome. A quick search of social media yields an unending stream of results — most of them anecdotal personal accounts, some of them pseudo-clinical pop psychology. So, is Stockholm syndrome real? Is it the same as trauma bonding? How do both relate to human trafficking?
What is Stockholm Syndrome?
Stockholm syndrome refers to a unique dynamic in which a captive emotionally bonds to their captor/abuser. This is broadly understood as a trauma response born of self-preservation.
According to broadly adopted research by M Namnyak, Stockholm syndrome usually consists of six characteristics:
- Affection for/emotional attachment to an abuser
- Feeling negatively towards anyone trying to help them leave the abuser
- Sympathy for or defending the abuser
- Rationalizing the abuse
- Seeing basic decency as exceptional kindness
- Feeling powerless to leave
Usually, Stockholm syndrome consists of a dynamic where the captor might have a genuine level of trust in their victim. Thus, there is a two-way interaction of trust and abuse.
“The psychological mechanisms that underlie these thought patterns that characterize Stockholm syndrome are called cognitive distortions,” explain researchers Affoué Mélissa Kouassi épouse N’ZI and Anna-Corinne Bissouma. “Typically, an individual who sacrifices himself to his attacker identifies certain survival strategies for himself, which helps him psychologically and physically.”
Stockholm syndrome has become commonly used to describe the experiences and behavior of a wide variety of abuse survivors: people who have endured human trafficking, kidnapping, cults, domestic violence, and abusive families.
Where did the name “Stockholm Syndrome” come from?
The term “Stockholm syndrome” originates from a robbery-turned-hostage situation at a bank in Stockholm, Sweden in 1973. As the hostage situation progressed, multiple fumbles from a police team unfamiliar with cases like this one engendered resentment between the four captives and law enforcement. The hostages came to believe that their two captors were more on their side than the police.
The seeds of that story took hold and spread in the pre-internet days when fact-checking was difficult. As RadioLab recently reported, rumors began to spread that the hostages were in love with the criminals and even that they later offered them money and defended them in court. Many of those stories were exaggerated or fully fabricated. Some of the hostages themselves later strongly objected to the idea that they had experienced any unique kind of bond with the robbers.
Is Stockholm syndrome real?
It seems that the case that gave rise to this condition’s title might not actually have had much in common with the way we use the term now. With the origins of the term being murky, it’s worth asking: is Stockholm syndrome a real psychological condition?
The answer is nuanced. Stockholm syndrome is not in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (the tool used by healthcare providers to diagnose mental illness). There are no clinically agreed-on standards for identifying the syndrome. In some cases, it is misdiagnosed or misapplied to invalidate or pathologize survivors, especially women.
However, anecdotally, any clinician who has worked with a traumatized population has likely seen traits of Stockholm syndrome. Many survivors themselves use the term colloquially to capture their lived experience. Media uses it as a shorthand to talk about cases. Aspects of the syndrome are well-documented.
Clearly, regardless of its origins, Stockholm syndrome has taken on a life of its own and come to mean something truly helpful on an experiential level. Dismissing it as a valid condition altogether can leave us without a framework for understanding why captives often love those who hurt them. Survivors themselves often feel seen when they hear the concept; it gives them permission not to further blame and shame themselves for how they coped under duress.
However, the lack of a formal definition makes it difficult to address the syndrome when we see it. Clear labels are necessary in that they offer a framework for response.
“Once you have a cohesive web of symptoms, you can attribute symptoms to behaviors and label a disorder, which can inform treatment,” explains Lelia Davis, a psychiatric nurse and counselor-in-training who offers counsel to The Exodus Road in trauma-informed care. “This allows us to offer support that actually helps.”
Since Stockholm syndrome is not codified, not only is it difficult to treat, but it is difficult to research to begin with. Very little comprehensive data exists on Stockholm syndrome. The information that does exist indicates that Stockholm syndrome is actually quite rare in the kinds of situations that inspired its very name, such as hostage crises or kidnappings.
Stockholm syndrome can be most helpfully understood as a specific presentation of trauma bonding, which is a more widely understood and researched phenomenon.
Although the terms are often used interchangeably, “trauma bonding” offers a broader umbrella of symptoms — although this, too, is not a clinical diagnosis. Trauma bonding is not a full condition in its own right, but rather a way of talking about one potential symptom of PTSD. Trauma bonding has also been misrepresented in pop media; it is glibly used to describe bonding through a shared traumatic experience. In actuality, “trauma bonding” refers to the way a victim might bond to the person who is traumatizing them.
Stockholm syndrome, trauma bonding, and human trafficking
According to the U.S. State Department, “Repeated trauma exposure can negatively affect brain development and the way a person thinks, often resulting in a victim becoming numb and disconnected or disassociated from themselves. Therefore, in order for them to feel something, it must be intense. For example, a trafficker’s repeated abuse and the related trauma exposure may result in a trafficking victim returning to the trafficker due to the intensity, familiarity, and routine provided by the relationship. A victim may eventually feel helpless and respond to any form of ‘help’ or ‘kindness’ from their trafficker with gratitude and attachment in order to survive.”
Research on the full scope and prevalence of Stockholm syndrome, trauma bonding, and human trafficking is scant. However, it’s a dynamic that has absolutely been observed in case studies.
In Kouassi épouse N’ZI and Bissouma’s research, they unpack nine stories of survivors of assault and trafficking in Abidjan, Ivory Coast.
While in therapy, a 21-year-old survivor poignantly said of her assailants, “Doctor, am I sick? These men wanted to hurt us, but why do I still like them? Maybe because I know they haven’t had an easy life like me.”
Here, we see her grappling with the cognitive dissonance that lies at the core of trauma bonding: how can I make sense of the fact that this person was kind to me in immediate, personal ways while being controlling and harmful in the long run?
This conflict is often very intentionally shored up by the actions of abusers, who sprinkle small kindnesses amid the horrific abuse to throw their victims off-balance and make them question reality. Traffickers might give those they are exploiting lavish gifts, offer basic needs like food and shelter, or extend breaks, all while characterizing these concessions as magnanimous.
”“A trauma bond is characterized by cycles of negative reinforcement interspersed with occasional bursts of positive reinforcement.”
— Psychology Today
That positive reinforcement might induce a victim to begin doing as an abuser instructs, even if those behaviors conflict with their own internal values. This often occurs in human trafficking crime when someone who has been trafficked begins assisting their abuser in trafficking others. In the context of commercial sex, the girl who begins to assist the pimp by coordinating his operations is known as the “bottom.” Often, this dynamic just reinforces a survivor’s sense that they have no hope of leaving, or that they are just as bad as their trafficker. The impacts on their well-being can be devastating.
“Cognitive dissonance like that produces guilt and remorse,” explains Lelia Davis. “If they’re not able to resolve that guilt or do anything to heal their actions, it can lead to conditions like substance abuse or treating others as poorly as they were treated. Guilt can manifest as shame or inferiority and, ultimately, low self-worth. It can eventually lead to depression and suicidality.”
Why does trauma bonding occur in human trafficking?
As survivors try to make sense of their horrific circumstances, they can cling to remnants of humanity as comforting signs of safety. They may also begin to use appeasement strategies to avoid real threats of harm that come from their traffickers. Developing a bond with abusers might actually be life-saving in extreme cases.
“When our survival is threatened, our primal drive is to do whatever it takes to stay alive—even if that means bonding with our abusers,” Dr. Van Zyl writes. “A brief moment of eye contact, a supportive smile, a bathroom break, or a glass of water could all become ‘proof’ that the abusers have compassion and that they aren’t monsters.”
This means that trauma bonding and Stockholm syndrome should not be seen as weaknesses or character defects. Instead, they are proof of how powerfully resilient the human mind can be, generating protective strategies in even the worst of circumstances.
Trauma bonding can also be indicative of a heightened sense of empathy and compassion in the person experiencing it. One study of domestic violence survivors found that heightened empathy was actually a predictor of developing Stockholm syndrome traits.
Interpreting the study, psychologist Arash Emamzadeh writes, “One way of explaining this finding is that victims use their empathic ability to rationalize the mistreatment they endure. For instance, they may view the perpetrator as a victim, a victim who needs their help or one who cannot be held responsible for the aggression or abuse.”
This happens routinely in situations of trafficking. The combination of an empathetic target and an exploitative trafficker can create the perfect storm. It’s important to consider the strength this represents rather than just pathologizing it as a problem to solve.
As the nonprofit organization Fair Girls puts it: “Trauma bonding is not a sign of weakness or naivety, rather it is a normal biological response to prolonged trauma and a psychological coping mechanism… Trauma bonds are a way our brains try to protect us during traumatic experiences but have harmful consequences both short and long term.”
“People had to figure out a way to survive in this captive environment doing something they would not choose to do with their bodies,” Davis adds. “Instead of giving up and withering away, they chose to rise to the occasion and fight for themselves.”
How can trafficking survivors heal from trauma bonds and Stockholm Syndrome?
Recovery from these kinds of traumatic bonds can be immensely complex, especially since one of the syndrome’s inherent characteristics is a resistance to those attempting to help.
“Stockholm syndrome distorts the victim’s reality and keeps them lost in the cycle, often preventing them from recognizing their role as victims,” explains the Bay Area CBT Center. “They may see themselves as partners in a flawed relationship, overlooking the intentional and manipulative behaviors of their abuser. This lack of awareness and ongoing dependence make it exceptionally challenging for victims to break free from the cycle of abuse, perpetuating the trauma bond and complicating recovery efforts.”
This is also complicated by the lack of clinical accord about what, exactly, Stockholm syndrome is and how to respond to it. There are no standards of care for practitioners trying to address it.
Because trauma bonds and Stockholm syndrome are based on cognitive distortions, many therapists support survivors in recovery through Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) — a modality designed to examine behaviors in order to change core beliefs. A therapist can gently help them pick through what is true or not, rational or irrational, helpful or harmful.
In the set of case studies from the Ivory Coast, this approach was used with a 17-year-old survivor. At first, she was resistant to treatment. But after eight therapy sessions, she gained clarity, saying of the day of the police’s arrival: “I was very scared that day. It stopped me from thinking carefully.”
Ultimately, trauma bonds are about creating a warped perspective that feels safer than reality. Choosing to engage reality as it is can be absolutely terrifying. The human nervous system is wired to seek familiarity. That means that survivors will often feel safer seeking familiar harm than unfamiliar healing. This can be difficult for their loved ones to understand, even though it is truly an adaptive survival strategy.
This means that we must make trauma-informed care as accessible and available as possible for those who have experienced trafficking. But ultimately, the impetus to pursue the healing process has to come from the survivor.
“Empowering someone to make a choice between staying the same and doing the hard work of changing has to be led by that person. It can’t be something that we do for them,” Davis concludes emphatically.
Healing from traumatic attachment of any kind — whether we use the language Stockholm syndrome, trauma bonding, or something else entirely — is a long process that must begin and end with restoring full agency to the survivor. The language we use on a case-by-case basis should be whatever wording best achieves that end.
